When people talk about foods that increase metabolism, I often see the same dramatic promises repeated: eat a chili pepper, drink a cup of green tea, add cinnamon to breakfast, and suddenly the body becomes a calorie-burning machine. After spending years reading nutrition research and paying closer attention to how different foods affect hunger, energy, and body composition, I have come to look at the subject quite differently. Certain foods really can influence energy expenditure, thermogenesis, satiety, or the way the body processes nutrients, but the effect is usually far more modest than catchy headlines suggest.
That does not make these foods useless. In fact, I think the opposite is true. The biggest mistake is expecting one ingredient to dramatically accelerate metabolism on its own. I get much better results by building meals around foods that require more energy to digest, help preserve metabolically active muscle, keep me satisfied for longer, and make it easier to maintain a balanced diet consistently. When those advantages are combined over weeks and months, they can matter much more than chasing a temporary “metabolism boost.”
Metabolism itself is also much broader than calorie burning. It includes the chemical processes that keep the body functioning, from converting food into usable energy to maintaining organs, repairing tissues, regulating hormones, and supporting cellular activity. A major portion of the calories we burn each day comes from basic physiological functions rather than from any particular food.
Food does influence energy expenditure through what researchers call the thermic effect of food, or diet-induced thermogenesis. Simply digesting, absorbing, transporting, metabolizing, and storing nutrients requires energy. Research consistently shows that protein has a considerably higher thermic effect than either carbohydrate or dietary fat. Estimates vary between studies, but roughly 20–30% of the energy contained in protein may be expended during its processing, compared with approximately 5–10% for carbohydrate and around 0–3% for fat.
That is one of the reasons many of the foods I consider genuinely useful for supporting metabolism are protein-rich rather than exotic “fat-burning” ingredients.
Below are the foods I regularly prioritize when I want my diet to support energy expenditure, appetite control, muscle maintenance, and overall metabolic health.
What Does It Really Mean to Increase Metabolism?
Before getting into individual foods, I think it is important to clear up what “increasing metabolism” actually means. Your total daily energy expenditure is made up of several components. There is the energy required to keep you alive at rest, the energy used for physical activity, the calories burned through everyday movements such as standing and walking, and the energy required to process the food you eat.
The last component is where diet can directly make a difference. Different macronutrients cost the body different amounts of energy to process. Protein is particularly interesting because its thermic effect is substantially greater than that of carbohydrate or fat. A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis examining 52 studies found that higher-protein meals produced greater diet-induced thermogenesis than lower-protein meals, while higher-protein diets were also associated with modestly greater total daily energy expenditure in longer-term studies.
This does not mean eating unlimited protein will cause dramatic weight loss. Calories still matter, as does total diet quality. What it does mean is that two meals containing similar calories can have somewhat different metabolic effects depending on their macronutrient composition.
Certain plant compounds may also temporarily influence thermogenesis or fat oxidation. Capsaicin in chili peppers, caffeine in coffee and tea, and catechins in green tea are probably the best-known examples. Their effects are interesting but relatively small, which is why I treat them as bonuses rather than the foundation of a metabolism-friendly diet.
1. Eggs
Eggs are one of the first foods I think of when building a metabolism-supporting breakfast because they provide high-quality protein in a relatively convenient package. A large egg provides roughly six grams of protein along with nutrients such as vitamin B12, selenium, choline, and several fat-soluble vitamins.
The protein content is the main reason eggs make my list. Because protein requires considerably more energy to process than fat or carbohydrate, replacing a low-protein breakfast with a protein-rich meal can increase the thermic cost of digestion. Research examining dietary protein repeatedly finds a greater thermogenic response from higher-protein meals.
There is another benefit I personally value even more: satiety. A breakfast built around eggs tends to keep me satisfied much longer than one dominated by highly refined carbohydrates. Better appetite control can indirectly support weight management because I am less tempted to snack continuously between meals.
I usually combine eggs with vegetables, whole-grain toast, fruit, beans, or avocado rather than eating eggs by themselves. That combination gives me protein along with fiber and micronutrients, creating a more balanced meal.
2. Greek Yogurt
Plain Greek yogurt is another staple I rely on when I want an easy protein source. Depending on the brand and serving size, it can deliver a substantial amount of protein without requiring any cooking.
Dairy protein is particularly interesting because research has examined its effects on appetite, energy expenditure, and body composition. Reviews of controlled trials support the broader finding that protein has a substantially greater diet-induced thermogenic effect than carbohydrate or fat.
For me, Greek yogurt also solves a practical problem. I can turn it into a filling snack by adding berries, nuts, seeds, or oats instead of reaching for a highly processed snack that provides little protein or fiber.
I generally choose unsweetened or lightly sweetened varieties because some flavored yogurts contain surprisingly large amounts of added sugar. The goal is not to avoid carbohydrate altogether, but to let the yogurt remain a genuinely protein-rich food rather than turning it into dessert.
3. Chicken Breast
Chicken breast is not glamorous, but it remains one of the most practical foods I use when I want to increase protein intake without dramatically increasing calories.
A protein-rich meal requires more energy for digestion and processing than a meal composed primarily of fat. This higher thermic effect is one of the better-supported dietary strategies for slightly influencing daily energy expenditure. Protein also provides amino acids needed to maintain and repair muscle tissue.
That matters because muscle is metabolically active tissue. Food cannot magically create a fast metabolism, but getting enough protein becomes particularly important when it is paired with resistance training and an active lifestyle.
I normally avoid thinking of chicken as a “fat-burning food.” That language oversells what it does. I see it instead as an efficient tool for building satisfying, protein-rich meals that support body composition and make calorie control easier.
4. Salmon
Salmon gives me something chicken cannot: substantial protein combined with omega-3 fatty acids.
Again, the direct thermogenic advantage largely comes from its protein content. However, salmon’s broader nutritional profile is what earns it a regular place in my diet. It provides vitamin B12, selenium, vitamin D in varying amounts, and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids.
I think this distinction is important because metabolic health involves far more than how many calories the body burns during the next few hours. Cardiovascular health, insulin sensitivity, muscle health, sleep, activity levels, and overall dietary quality all influence the bigger picture.
Salmon therefore fits my idea of a metabolism-supporting diet perfectly: not because it flips a hidden fat-burning switch, but because it provides high-quality nutrients while making it easier to construct a satisfying meal.
5. Tuna
Tuna is another convenient source of protein that I often use when time is limited. A simple tuna salad, tuna with whole-grain crackers, or tuna added to a large vegetable bowl can provide considerable protein without requiring elaborate preparation.
Like other protein-rich foods, tuna benefits from the higher thermic cost associated with protein digestion. That metabolic advantage is modest, but it is far more scientifically grounded than many of the extravagant claims made about “metabolism boosters.”
One thing I would not recommend is eating tuna at every meal. Variety matters, particularly with seafood, and different fish provide different nutritional advantages. I rotate tuna with salmon, sardines, shrimp, eggs, poultry, legumes, and other proteins.
6. Lean Beef
Lean beef can also fit comfortably into a metabolism-supporting eating pattern. It contains complete protein along with iron, zinc, and vitamin B12.
I particularly appreciate iron because inadequate iron intake can affect energy levels, especially in people with greater iron requirements. Feeling energetic enough to stay physically active matters far more for total daily calorie expenditure than any tiny thermogenic effect from a spice or beverage.
Choosing leaner cuts allows me to emphasize protein without adding excessive saturated fat. Portion size also matters. My approach is normally to use meat as part of the meal rather than allowing it to occupy the entire plate, pairing it with vegetables, beans, potatoes, or whole grains.
7. Lentils
Not everyone wants to rely heavily on animal protein, and fortunately there are excellent plant-based options. Lentils are one of my favorites because they combine protein and fiber in the same inexpensive food.
That combination is powerful for satiety. Protein has a relatively high thermic effect, while fiber slows digestion and helps meals feel substantial. Lentils also provide folate, iron, potassium, magnesium, and various plant compounds.
I regularly add lentils to soups, salads, curries, grain bowls, and stews. I especially like them during weight-management phases because they can make a large meal feel satisfying without requiring enormous amounts of calorie-dense ingredients.
The important point is that lentils do not dramatically increase resting metabolic rate. Their advantage comes from supporting a dietary pattern that improves fullness, nutrition, and protein intake.
8. Beans
Black beans, kidney beans, chickpeas, pinto beans, and similar legumes deserve the same attention.
Beans combine plant protein with large amounts of dietary fiber and slowly digested carbohydrate. They are the kind of food I associate with long-lasting fullness rather than a temporary metabolic spike.
I often replace part of the meat in recipes with beans. Chili, tacos, soups, burrito bowls, and salads are easy places to do this. It increases fiber while still providing meaningful protein.
When people ask me which foods help metabolism, I actually think foods like beans deserve more attention than trendy supplements. A food that helps me stay full for four hours can be more useful in everyday life than an ingredient that increases energy expenditure by a tiny amount for a short period.
9. Chili Peppers
Now we get to one of the few foods that may have a more direct thermogenic effect.
Chili peppers contain capsaicin, the compound responsible for their familiar heat. Capsaicin interacts with receptors involved in heat sensation and has been investigated for its ability to increase energy expenditure, fat oxidation, and satiety.
A critical review and meta-analysis of human studies concluded that capsaicin and related compounds may modestly increase energy expenditure and fat oxidation. The researchers were equally important in emphasizing that the magnitude of the effect was small.
Another meta-analysis reported an average increase in energy expenditure of approximately 59 calories per day after capsaicin or capsinoid intake across the included studies, although results varied considerably depending on the population and study design.
That is exactly how I approach chili peppers. I enjoy adding cayenne, jalapeños, crushed red pepper, or fresh chilies to meals, and any thermogenic benefit is welcome. But I would never expect spicy food to compensate for hundreds of excess calories.
The best reason to eat chili peppers is that they can make nutritious foods incredibly flavorful without requiring large amounts of sugar or heavy sauces.
10. Coffee
Coffee is probably the most familiar metabolism-related beverage.
Caffeine stimulates the central nervous system and can temporarily increase alertness and energy expenditure. It can also improve exercise performance in many people, which may indirectly help increase calorie expenditure by making training feel more productive.
The part people often overlook is tolerance. Someone who regularly drinks several cups of coffee may not respond exactly like someone who rarely consumes caffeine. Individual sensitivity also varies enormously.
I personally treat coffee as an enjoyable beverage and performance aid rather than a weight-loss strategy. I also avoid turning it into a high-calorie dessert. Black coffee itself contributes very few calories, but large amounts of flavored syrup, whipped cream, sugar, and cream can quickly change the nutritional equation.
More caffeine is not necessarily better. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has stated that for most healthy adults, around 400 milligrams of caffeine per day is an amount not generally associated with negative effects, although sensitivity varies considerably between individuals. People who are pregnant, sensitive to caffeine, taking certain medications, or managing particular health conditions may need different limits.
11. Green Tea
Green tea may be the most interesting beverage on this list because it contains both caffeine and catechin polyphenols, including epigallocatechin gallate, better known as EGCG.
A small controlled study found that a green tea extract containing catechins and caffeine increased 24-hour energy expenditure and fat oxidation compared with placebo.
However, when researchers look at actual weight loss rather than short-term metabolic measurements, the effect becomes much less dramatic. A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found that green tea catechins combined with caffeine were associated with modest reductions in body weight and waist circumference, while the authors noted that the clinical significance of those changes was modest.
That is why I enjoy green tea without expecting miracles from it. Replacing sugary drinks with unsweetened green tea is probably more valuable than obsessing over a tiny increase in thermogenesis.
12. Cottage Cheese
Cottage cheese is another protein-rich food that does not get nearly as much attention as trendy metabolism products.
Its nutritional profile makes it useful for breakfast, lunch, or an evening snack. Depending on the variety, cottage cheese can provide a large amount of protein in a relatively modest serving.
Because protein consistently produces greater diet-induced thermogenesis than carbohydrate or fat, foods like cottage cheese fit naturally into a metabolism-conscious diet.
I like pairing it with berries and nuts for something sweet, or tomatoes, herbs, pepper, and cucumber for a savory version. Either way, it gives me an easy way to increase protein without having to prepare meat or fish.
13. Oats
Oats do not substantially increase metabolism in the same direct way protein or caffeine might, but I still consider them extremely valuable.
They contain soluble fiber, particularly beta-glucan, and can produce a satisfying breakfast when combined with protein. Rather than eating a large bowl of oats by itself, I usually add Greek yogurt, milk, protein-rich seeds, or another source of protein.
This is where I think people sometimes misunderstand the metabolism conversation. A food does not need to noticeably raise resting energy expenditure to help someone maintain a healthier body weight. Foods that improve fullness and reduce the likelihood of overeating later in the day can be just as useful.
Oats also make it easy to replace heavily refined breakfast foods containing added sugars and little fiber.
14. Whole Grains
Brown rice, barley, quinoa, whole-grain bread, buckwheat, and other minimally refined grains can all be part of a metabolism-friendly diet.
I prefer whole grains mainly because they retain more fiber and nutrients than highly refined versions. The fiber improves fullness and tends to make meals more satisfying.
Quinoa deserves a special mention because it contains more protein than many traditional grains and pairs well with beans, poultry, seafood, vegetables, or eggs. Barley is another favorite because of its satisfying texture and fiber content.
I do not subscribe to the idea that carbohydrates “slow metabolism.” Quality and quantity matter much more. An active person can absolutely include carbohydrate-rich foods while maintaining excellent metabolic health.
15. Water
Water is technically not a food, but I cannot discuss metabolism without including it.
Hydration is necessary for normal physiological function, digestion, circulation, temperature regulation, exercise performance, and countless metabolic reactions. Being dehydrated can also make physical activity feel more difficult.
Some studies have investigated whether drinking water temporarily increases energy expenditure, but I would not drink water for the purpose of burning calories. The practical advantage is much simpler.
Replacing calorie-dense beverages with water can dramatically reduce energy intake. A person who replaces two 200-calorie sugary drinks each day with water has removed approximately 400 calories without changing a single solid food.
That is a much more meaningful metabolic strategy than trying to identify a drink capable of burning an extra handful of calories.
The Role of Protein in a Faster Metabolism
If I had to choose one dietary principle from this entire article, I would focus on getting enough protein rather than hunting for individual metabolism-boosting foods.
Protein consistently shows the highest thermic effect of the major macronutrients. Reviews commonly estimate that approximately 20–30% of protein’s caloric content may be expended during digestion and metabolic processing, compared with around 5–10% for carbohydrate and 0–3% for fat.
A newer meta-analysis published in 2024 strengthened that picture by finding that higher-protein meals produced greater diet-induced thermogenesis and total daily energy expenditure in acute studies than lower-protein meals. Longer interventions also found modest increases in total daily and resting energy expenditure with higher-protein diets, although effects were not identical across every outcome.
Protein is also important for preserving lean tissue, especially during calorie restriction. This becomes even more valuable when combined with resistance training.
That is why my typical meals usually start with a protein source. I might choose eggs or Greek yogurt at breakfast, chicken or lentils at lunch, fish or beans at dinner, and cottage cheese or yogurt for a snack.
I find this approach much more useful than sprinkling a “metabolism spice” onto an otherwise poor diet.
Foods That Supposedly Boost Metabolism but I Would Not Rely On
There are plenty of foods and ingredients marketed as metabolism boosters despite relatively weak evidence.
Cinnamon is a good example. I enjoy cinnamon and use it regularly, but I would not expect a teaspoon of cinnamon to noticeably increase daily calorie expenditure.
Apple cider vinegar has also acquired an almost mythical reputation online. While researchers have investigated vinegar in relation to appetite and blood glucose responses, calling it a metabolic accelerator is an exaggeration.
Ginger is another nutritious ingredient that can add flavor and contains interesting bioactive compounds, but I would not structure a weight-loss plan around ginger tea.
The same principle applies to so-called detox drinks containing lemon, cayenne, vinegar, and similar ingredients. Lemon water can be refreshing. Cayenne contains capsaicin. Water supports hydration. None of this means a homemade drink suddenly melts body fat.
Whenever I see an extraordinary metabolism claim, I ask one simple question: How large is the effect in actual humans? A statistically significant effect is not always a practically important effect.
Can These Foods Help Me Lose Weight?
Potentially, yes—but not because they magically override energy balance.
Some foods on this list can make weight management easier by improving satiety. Others provide more protein, which has a relatively high thermic effect. Coffee and tea can provide modest thermogenic effects, and spicy peppers may slightly increase energy expenditure.
But sustainable weight loss still depends on maintaining an energy deficit over time.
That does not mean I believe “a calorie is just a calorie” in every practical sense. Food composition influences hunger, digestion, muscle preservation, food cravings, nutrient intake, and the thermic effect of eating. Two diets providing the same number of calories can therefore feel very different to follow.
I would rather eat 500 calories from salmon, potatoes, and vegetables than 500 calories from cookies—not because the laws of energy balance stop applying to cookies, but because the first meal gives me considerably more protein, fiber, micronutrients, volume, and satiety.
That difference affects what happens at my next meal, and the meal after that.
What I Eat in a Typical Metabolism-Friendly Day
My approach is simple because complicated diets rarely survive real life.
For breakfast, I might have eggs with whole-grain toast and fruit, or Greek yogurt with oats, berries, and nuts. Both options provide protein, and both give me enough food volume to avoid feeling hungry again almost immediately.
Lunch might consist of grilled chicken with quinoa, vegetables, and beans. On another day I might have a lentil soup with whole-grain bread and Greek yogurt.
During the afternoon, coffee or green tea fits naturally if I want caffeine, although I try not to use caffeine late enough to interfere with sleep.
Dinner might be salmon with potatoes and roasted vegetables, lean beef with brown rice and vegetables, or a bean-based chili with plenty of peppers and spices.
I sometimes add fresh chili or cayenne because I genuinely enjoy spicy food. If the capsaicin produces a modest thermogenic benefit, I consider that a bonus rather than the reason for eating it.
That distinction has helped me build a much healthier relationship with nutrition. I am no longer asking which single ingredient burns the most fat. I am asking which meals make it easiest for me to eat well, stay active, maintain muscle, control hunger, and repeat those habits consistently.
Lifestyle Habits Matter More Than Any Metabolism-Boosting Food
This may be the most important section of the article.
No individual food can compensate for a lifestyle that consistently works against metabolic health. When I think about maintaining a healthy metabolism, I put resistance training, daily movement, adequate protein, good sleep, sensible calorie intake, and overall dietary quality ahead of any particular ingredient.
Resistance training is especially valuable because it helps preserve or increase muscle tissue. Walking and other everyday movement also contribute significantly to total daily energy expenditure.
Sleep deserves attention as well. When I am severely sleep deprived, hunger and cravings become noticeably harder to manage, my workouts suffer, and staying active throughout the day becomes less appealing. A cup of green tea cannot undo those effects.
Stress management matters for similar reasons. Chronic stress can influence eating behavior, sleep, activity patterns, and food choices.
The point is not that metabolism-boosting foods are meaningless. The point is that they work best as part of a larger system.
How I Build Meals to Support Metabolism
Instead of trying to include all 15 foods every day, I use a simple formula.
I start with a substantial source of protein, whether that is eggs, fish, poultry, Greek yogurt, cottage cheese, beans, lentils, tofu, or another protein-rich food. Then I add vegetables or fruit for fiber, volume, and micronutrients.
Next comes a high-quality carbohydrate source when appropriate, such as oats, potatoes, beans, brown rice, quinoa, barley, fruit, or whole-grain bread. Finally, I include a sensible amount of dietary fat from foods such as nuts, seeds, avocado, olive oil, eggs, or fatty fish.
Coffee, green tea, and spicy foods can fit around that foundation.
This approach gives me something much more useful than a brief metabolic spike: meals that are satisfying enough to support consistency.
My Final Thoughts on Foods That Increase Metabolism
After looking at the research, I believe foods that increase metabolism do exist—but the phrase needs some perspective.
Protein-rich foods such as eggs, chicken, fish, Greek yogurt, cottage cheese, lean meat, beans, and lentils can increase the thermic cost of eating because protein requires more energy to process than carbohydrate or fat. Chili peppers may produce a small increase in thermogenesis through capsaicin. Coffee can temporarily stimulate energy expenditure through caffeine, while green tea contains both caffeine and catechins that have been investigated for their effects on thermogenesis and fat oxidation.
Those effects are real enough to be interesting, but none of them turns the body into a dramatically faster calorie-burning machine.
The strategy that makes the most sense to me is to stop searching for one miraculous metabolism booster and start creating an entire eating pattern that works in my favor. I prioritize protein, fiber-rich plants, minimally processed foods, adequate hydration, and meals that actually satisfy me. Then I combine that diet with strength training, regular movement, sufficient sleep, and realistic portions.
That combination may not have the excitement of a “metabolism hack,” but it has something much more valuable: a foundation that can actually be sustained.
If I had to reduce the entire subject to one principle, it would be this: use metabolism-supporting foods to improve an already healthy lifestyle rather than expecting them to rescue an unhealthy one. That mindset has always made far more sense to me than chasing shortcuts.
References
The following scientific and authoritative sources were consulted while preparing this article:
PubMed Central (National Library of Medicine) — “Diet Induced Thermogenesis.” This scientific review examines diet-induced thermogenesis and explains differences in the thermic effect of protein, carbohydrate, and dietary fat.
Read “Diet Induced Thermogenesis” on PubMed Central
PubMed Central (National Library of Medicine) — “Effects of Varying Protein Amounts and Types on Diet-Induced Thermogenesis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” This 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated 52 studies and examined how different amounts of dietary protein affect thermogenesis and energy expenditure.
Read the protein and thermogenesis meta-analysis on PubMed Central
PubMed Central — “A High-Protein Diet for Reducing Body Fat: Mechanisms and Possible Caveats.” This review discusses protein, satiety, thermogenesis, body composition, and potential mechanisms through which high-protein diets may affect energy balance.
Read “A High-Protein Diet for Reducing Body Fat” on PubMed Central
PubMed Central — “Effect of Dairy Proteins on Appetite, Energy Expenditure, Body Weight, and Composition: A Review of the Evidence from Controlled Clinical Trials.” This review evaluates controlled clinical research involving dairy protein, appetite, thermogenesis, and body composition.
Read the dairy protein review on PubMed Central
PubMed — “The Effects of Capsaicin and Capsiate on Energy Balance: Critical Review and Meta-Analyses of Studies in Humans.” This review examines chili-pepper compounds in relation to energy expenditure, fat oxidation, appetite, and weight management.
Read the capsaicin meta-analysis on PubMed
PubMed — “Capsaicin and Capsiate Could Be Appropriate Agents for Treatment of Obesity: A Meta-Analysis of Human Studies.” This meta-analysis evaluates human studies involving capsaicinoids, energy expenditure, and fat oxidation.
Read the capsaicin and energy expenditure meta-analysis on PubMed
PubMed — “Efficacy of a Green Tea Extract Rich in Catechin Polyphenols and Caffeine in Increasing 24-h Energy Expenditure and Fat Oxidation in Humans.” This controlled human study examined green tea extract, 24-hour energy expenditure, and fat oxidation.
Read the green tea energy-expenditure study on PubMed
PubMed — “Effect of Green Tea Catechins With or Without Caffeine on Anthropometric Measures: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” This systematic review evaluated randomized controlled trials investigating green tea catechins in relation to body weight, BMI, and waist circumference.
Read the green tea catechins meta-analysis on PubMed
PubMed Central — “The Energy Content and Composition of Meals Consumed after an Overnight Fast and Their Effects on Diet Induced Thermogenesis: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analyses and Meta-Regressions.” This research evaluates how meal size and macronutrient composition influence diet-induced thermogenesis.
Read the meal composition and thermogenesis review on PubMed Central
PubMed Central — “Dietary Protein and Energy Balance in Relation to Obesity and Co-Morbidities.” This review discusses protein intake, thermogenesis, energy expenditure, appetite, and body-weight regulation.
Read the dietary protein and energy balance review on PubMed Central
Disclaimer
This article is provided for general educational and informational purposes only and should not be considered medical, nutritional, diagnostic, or treatment advice. The effects of individual foods on metabolism, appetite, blood sugar, body weight, and overall health can vary substantially from one person to another. No individual food, beverage, spice, or supplement should be considered a treatment for obesity or a substitute for an appropriate diet, physical activity, sleep, or professional medical care.
Anyone who is pregnant or breastfeeding, has a diagnosed medical condition, takes prescription medication, has a history of disordered eating, is sensitive to caffeine, or is considering making significant changes to diet or body weight should consult a qualified physician or registered dietitian for individualized guidance. Evidence regarding nutrition also continues to evolve, and the research discussed in this article should be interpreted within the context of a person’s complete diet, lifestyle, and medical circumstances.